Critical Discourse Analysis : An Introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction

CDA/Critical Discourse Analysis has a very "linguistic" outlook (which prevents incorporating linguistic and non-linguistic dimension) – Talk is a social action – therefore we analyze their talk, not the person. One objective of this method is to expose connections between language, power, inequality, and ideology and how they manifest – discursive power. In this paper we will explain this issue further more and the example of study.

Key words : Discourse, Discourse Analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis,  Critical Discourse Analysis models 

Chapter 2 

Discourse

To understand our topic about Critical Discourse Analysis. First, we have to understand some term.  One of them is to understand what discourse is. We can find some definition about discourse. (Bloor & Bloor, 2007) summarizes in their journal some definitions about discourse as follow: 

• the highest unit of linguistic description; phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences and texts are below;

• a sample of language usage, generally written to be spoken, that is, a speech;

• refers to the communication expected in one situation context, alongside one field and register, such as the discourse of law or medicine;

• human interaction through any means, verbal and non-verbal;

• spoken interaction only;

• stands for the whole communicative event.

“Wodak and Meyer (2009) associate this diversity with three different trends: The German and Central European tradition, in which the term discourse draws on text linguistics; the Anglo-American tradition, in which discourse refers to written and oral texts; and the Foucauldian tradition, in which discourse is an abstract form of knowledge, understood as cognition and emotions (Jäger and Maier 2009). (Tenorio, 2019)”

In (Collins dictionary, 2022) it is mentioned that discourse is 1) verbal communication, speech, conversation; 2) a formal treatment of the subject in speech or writing; 3) a unit of text used by linguists to analyze units over sentences.

(Ismail, 2017) stated in his writings that a simpler understanding of discourse is expressed by Lull as quoted in the book Media Text Analysis (Alex Sobur, 2006: 11) which means the way objects or ideas are discussed openly to the public so as to give rise to certain widespread understandings.

Van Dijk, according to (Ismail, 2017) demonstrated that discourse is made up of six elements: 1) thematic, 2) schematic, 3) systematic, 4) syntactic, 5) stylistic, and 6) rhetorical.

Chapter 3

Discourse Analysis

Second, we have to understand the term discourse analysis. There are three perspectives on language in discourse analysis (Ismail, 2017). At first perspective, language appears to be a link between man and the world around him. As a result, discourse analysis is used to describe sentence, language, and mutual understanding rules. Discourse is measured by consideration of truth/untruth according to syntax and semantics (Eriyanto, 2006). At second perspective, the subject as a fundamental factor in discourse activities as well as its social interactions is. Regarding this, so discourse analysis is intended as an analysis to unpack certain meanings and meanings (Eriyanto, 2006). At third perspective, Language is viewed as a representation that helps to fix specific subjects, discourse themes, and tactics in it. As a result, discourse analysis is utilized to undermine the power that every language process possesses. This discourse analysis is known as critical discourse analysis because it uses a critical perspective (Eriyanto, 2006)

Chapter 4

Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical discourse analysis aims to uncover the links between language, power, inequality, and ideology, as well as the ways in which these appear — For this strategy, discursive power — control of a discourse by a dominant group, for example – is essential. Critical discourse analysis is a type of discourse analysis that focuses on the discursive contexts, components, and outcomes of abuse of power by dominant groups, elites, and institutions. In critical discourse analysis we explore the relationship between discourse and reality in certain contexts and the discourse itself is constitutive and socially conditioned (Constructivism). 

Critical discourse analysis is one of the methods that can be used to analyze discourse both oral and written (Ismail, 2017). Language, as well as discourse analysis, is the subject of critical discourse analysis. However, not only are aspects of language analyzed in critical discourse analysis, but also the context that surrounds it. According to critical discourse analysis, text is not value-free and simply describes reality as it is. The text's content is also colored by the text's author's personal tendencies and the social structure in which he or she lives. Language is not objective; it conveys an ideological message that is influenced by the text's author. Critical discourse analysis recognizes that planning is more than just a linguistic study; critical discourse analysis links it to context. The environment in question is one of a power practices aimed at marginalizing a specific individual or group through the use of power in the production of writings (discourses).

Citing (Pakarkomunikasi.com, 2017) some understanding of critical discourse analysis put forward by experts include the following:

1. According to Teun A. van Dijk (1998) the analysis of critical discourse is an approach to the study of text and speech, which arises from critical linguistics, critical semiotics and in general from socio-politics and is a different way of investigating language, discourse, and communication. 

2. According to Norman Fairclough (1993) what is meant by critical discourse analysis is a discourse analysis that aims to (a) systematically explore the relationship between causality and determination among discursive practices, events and texts; (b) broader social structures and cultural structures, relations, and processes; (c) to investigate how practices, events, and texts develop outside and are ideologically shaped by power relations and survive power; and (d) to explore how the opacity of the relationship between discourse and society itself is a factor in securing power and hegemony.

In critical discourse analysis, numerous factors are essential at the same time. A critical discourse analysis has these characteristics as well (Ismail, 2017):

Action. Discourse is viewed as a form of activity. Discourse can also be thought of as a type of interaction. So, discourse is something that has the goal of influencing, debating, persuading, refuting, and so on. Discourse is also anything that is knowingly and deliberately expressed.

Context, (Ismail, 2017) refers to Guy Cook's opinion, that in the analysis of discourse also examines the context of communication such as who communicates with whom and why; in what types of audiences and situations; through what medium; how different types of communication development; and relationships for each party

Histories, it is possible to comprehend a text discourse by describing the historical environment in which the text was written. As a result, it is vital to comprehend why such a developed or developed discourse exists, why the language employed is as it is, and so on, while analyzing.

Power, every type of speech, whether it is writing, dialogue, or something else, is viewed as a form of power struggle. One of the most important aspects of the discourse-society relationship is the concept of power. The so-called control shows the link between power and discourse. Control over the context and control over the structure of the discourse are two types of control in a discourse. Control over context can be demonstrated, for example, in who can or should speak while the other person listens or agrees. While a person with greater power may select which parts need to be displayed and which parts do not, and how he does so, a person with less power can't.

Ideology, the dominant group uses discourse to convince and transmit their power in order to appear genuine and truthful in the eyes of the audience. A text, a discussion, and other types of ideological practice are examples. Ideologies are considered to be constructed by dominating groups in order to reproduce and legitimize their dominance, according to ideological theories. The major goal is to raise audience awareness that supremacy is something that may be taken for granted.

Chapter 5

Critical Discourse Analysis Models 

In critical discourse analysis we can find some approach or models. There are:

1) Critical Language Analysis, 

In the 1970s, a group of lecturers at the University of East Anglia created Critical Language Analysis. The language and its link to ideology are the emphasis of this method to discourse analysis. As a result, ideology can be discerned based on the language and grammatical structure used. A person's selected words or grammatical structure are utilized to communicate a certain philosophy.

The Critical Linguistics approach is the name given to the analysis model created by Fowler et al. The analysis model's point of view was founded on Halliday's description of the structure and function of language. Following that line of thought, Fowler, et al looked into grammar and how it was used in order to figure how ideology was practiced. 1) Vocabulary and 2) Grammar are the language aspects that Fowler and his colleagues learn.

2) French Approach Discourse Analysis, 

The Pecheux Approach is another name for the French approach. Althusser's ideological theory and Foucault's discourse theory impacted this approach. Language and ideology, according to Pecheux, collide on the use of language and the materialization of language in ideology. Pecheux is interested in how discourse's ideological impacts place a person as a subject in specific social circumstances. As a result, language is viewed as a battleground in which different groups and social classes try to establish their views and understandings.

3) Social Cognition Approach, 

Teun A. van Dijk is the major figure in the Social Cognition Approach, which was developed at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands. In researching news articles in European newspapers in the 1980s, Van Dijk and friends emphasized concerns of ethnicity, racism, and migrants. 

According to Van Dijk's findings, cognition elements have become a significant component in discourse formation. A process of social cognition will be involved in the development of discourse. Van Dijk's analytical approach is also known as social cognition. According to van Dijk, evaluating discourse requires not only examining the text but also observing how and why the content is created. Van Dijk conducted extensive study, particularly in the area of news. 

Van Dijk did a lot of research, especially related to news that contained racism and was expressed through text. Everyday conversations, job interviews, board meetings, parliamentary debates, political propaganda, advertising, scientific articles, editorials, news, photos, movies are things van Dijk observes.

Picture 5.1

Source:(Ismail, 2017)

The image above shows how van Dijk describes discourses that have three dimensions, namely: text, social cognition, and context.

• In the text, what is studied is how the structure of the text and the strategy of discourse are used to emphasize a particular theme. 

• In the dimension of social cognition, what is observed is the process of producing a text involving the individual cognition of the author. 

• While in the context dimension, what is studied is the discourse that develops in society about a problem.

Van Dijk revealed that discourse consists of several elements, namely: 1) Thematic, 2) Schematic, 3) Systematic, 4) Syntactic, 5) Stylistic, 6) Rhetorical (Ismail, 2017).

4) Social Change Approach,  

The Social Change approach is used to examine discourses that focus on the connection between discourse and social change. Fairclough, who was influenced by Foucault's thought as well as Julia Kristeva and Bakhtin's intertextuality, is the face of this approach. In this approach, discourse is viewed as a social practice, i.e. there is a relationship between discursive practice and identity and social relations.  So, Norman Fairclough's analysis model is also known as a model of social change.

Fairclough employs discourse to demonstrate language as a social practice. Thus, discourse is a type of practice in which a person acts on the world with words, particularly as a form of representation when confronted with reality.

5) Historical Discourse Approach.

The Historical Discourse approach was developed by a group of teachers in Vienna led by Ruth Wadok. This approach was influenced by the thinking of Jurgen Habermas. According to Wadok and friends, in analyzing discourse should also include the historical context of how discourse about a group is described.

Chapter 6

The Example of Critical Discourse Analysis

In this paper I would like to take the example of an analysis of critical discourse on the Mata Najwa program which discusses “Balada Perda” (the ballad of local regulations) displayed on Metro TV stations. This critical analysis was made by (Lado, 2014) in his paper “Analisis Wacana Kritis Program Mata Najwa-Balada Perda di Metro TV”

Researchers conducted a critical discourse analysis for an Najwa Eye program that aired on January 16, 2013. At that time Mata Najwa raised the theme of “Balada Perda” amid news about the controversial regulation. 

Mata Najwa discusses four regional rules (Perda) that have both positive and negative consequences in society: the prohibition of straddling for women in Lhokseumawe; regional baby name rules in Surabaya; the regent's initiative invites regional officials to the prison in Bualemo; and the mandatory rules of studying and turning off the television in Kampar.

According to (Lado, 2014) : 

“In the critical paradigm, the use of language in media is intentional and has a specific purpose. Seeing this, researchers are interested in seeing the discourse built into the episode. Researchers used Teun van Dijk's model critical discourse analysis technique and found that Mata Najwa built a discourse that the local regulation (PERDA) serves the interests of the government; Perda intervenes in people's privacy; and the Perda discriminates against certain groups. The formation of this discourse at the same time shows the definition and placement of positions carried out by Mata Najwa towards the participants of discourse production. Mata Najwa put Najwa Shihab as the dominant party so that the reality could be accepted by the public as the truth. With a combination of analysis of text, social cognition and context, researchers found that the discourse built by Mata Najwa confirmed the view that post-regional autonomy regulations invite pros and cons in society. Researchers also found that the impression of this program was influenced by the economic interests of Metro TV media.”

Data Findings:

Schematically, the data of the Najwa Eye Program discussing the "Ballad of the Perda" is presented by (Lado, 2014) as a researcher as follows; 

Time	Segment	Note
00:56- 01.34	Opening session of the Program	Mata Najwa gave a statement that there appeared a local regulations (perda) that invited pros and cons.
01.35- 21.26	Call for a ban on sitting astride on motorcycles for women in Lhokseumawe.	Mata Najwa made the appeal in Lhokseumawe as a rule that did not prosper the community.
22.31- 30.46	Raperda (local regulation plan) of setting baby names with regional characteristics in Surabaya.	Mata Najwa make raperda in Surabaya as a rule that does not prosper the community.
30.47- 34.05	The regent's initiative took local government officials to prison and stayed at the homes of the poor in Bualemo.	Mata Najwa make the rules in Bualemo an exemplary example.
34.06- 36.54	Regent's rule to require residents to pay and turn off televisions during magrib in Kampar.	Mata Najwa make the rules in Kampar an exemplary example.
37.08- 40.28	Comments by the Minister of Home Affairs, Gamawan Fauzi.	Mata Najwa used the Comments of the Minister of Home Affairs that focused on criticism of non-essential regulations.
40.29- 41.18	Najwa Notes (host Note)	Mata Najwa use the Najwa Note to recall that currently many local government rules are not important and do not bring welfare to society.

Source: (Lado, 2014) as the researcher

Analysis and Interpretation 

The data suggest that thematically, the “Balada Perda” episode attacked the existence of the regional autonomy post-autonomy perda since it did not perform its functions well. Article 136 paragraph 2 of Law No. 32 of 2004 Concerning Regional Government says that the regulation was created as part of the establishment of regional autonomy. Article 20 paragraph 1 c of the same Law specifies that regional implementation is based on the premise of public interest. In other words, the regulation was created to benefit society as a whole. The region is therefore required to preserve and improve the quality of people's lives, according to article 22.

Based on this Critical Discourse analysis, according to (Lado, 2014) there are three discourses built into this program:

1. Perda Serves the Interests of The Local Government of Law. No. 32 of 2004 concerning Regional Government Article 20 Paragraph 1c states that the implementation of local government must be guided by the principle of public interest. Thus, the regulation which is a legal product (Paturusi, 2009, p. 105) must also serve the public interest.

2. Perda Intervenes in Citizens' Privacy Data findings show the existence of sub-episodes of perda intervened in citizens' privacy. In the interview with Suaidi, Najwa let Suaidi give details about the relationship of responsibility between herself, Allah and the people. He is obliged to convey to the people what is to be done for good as a form of his responsibility to God. But the decision to do good is a personal matter of the people with God. After Suaidi finished, Najwa began the formation of a perda discourse to interfere in private affairs.

3. Perda Discriminates Against Certain Groups.  At minute 05.53-06.00, Najwa brought up this discussion by passing Suadi and asked, "Do you think the men sitting astride, do you think it's Acehnese tradition or?" Suadi then went into detail on a man's nature as a disrespectful person while sitting astride a horse. The data findings reveal that Suaidi distinguishes between males and women's coherence in the same text. Men are allowed to sit astride, however women must be courteous and not sit astride.

Researchers used van Dijk's model critical discourse analysis technique to discover that Mata Najwa constructed three discourses: perda serving government objectives, perda interfering with citizens' privacy, and perda discriminating against particular groups.

Chapter 7

Conclusion

Critical discourse analysis aims to uncover the links between language, power, inequality, and ideology, as well as the ways in which these appear — For this strategy, discursive power — control of a discourse by a dominant group, for example – is essential.  Critical discourse analysis not only assess the text but with a combination of analysis of text, social cognition and context.it vital to remember that, according to this method, the text is not value free.

References

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collinsdictionary. (2022). Retrieved from www.collinsdictionary.com: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/discourse

DAHL, B. M., ANDREWS, T., & CLANCY, A. (2013). Contradictory discourses of health promotion and disease prevention in the educational curriculum of Norwegian public health nursing: A Critical Discourse Analysis . Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 2013; 0: 1–6, 1-6.

Eriyanto. (2006). Analisis Wacana. Pengantar Analisis Teks Media. Yogyakarta: LKIS.

Ismail, S. (2017). Analisis Wacana Kritis: Alternatif Menganilisis Wacana. Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni Universitas Negeri jakarta.

Lado, C. R. (2014). Analisis Wacana Kritis Program Mata Najwa "Balada Perda" di Metro TV. Jurnal E-Komunikasi Program Studi Ilmu Komunikasi Universitas Kristen Petra Surabaya vol. 2 no.2.

Pakarkomunikasi.com. (2017). https://pakarkomunikasi.com/analisis-wacana-kritis. Retrieved from https://pakarkomunikasi.com/: https://pakarkomunikasi.com/analisis-wacana-kritis

Tenorio, E. H. (2019). Ciritical Discourse Analysis. University of Granada, 183-210.