Chapter 1
Introduction
Learning and understanding of the quantitative method is very important for us as communication students and scholars. In this weekly discussion I will explain what the quantitative method is (including its differences with qualitative research) and explain the three types of basic quantitative methods (and give some example of the title research or article in journal for each of those types).
Key words: Quantitative Research, Types of Quantitative Research, The Example of Title Research, Comparison for Each Types of Research
Chapter 2
Quantitative Method: An Introduction
Quantitative research is a research method based on the philosophy of positivism, which is used to examine certain populations or samples, which are generally random sampling, and data is collected using research instruments, then analyzed quantitatively / statistically with the aim of testing predetermined hypotheses (Sugiyono, 2010). While according to (Creswell, 2014) Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures.
“Quantitative approaches focus on objective measurements and statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data acquired through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, as well as modifying pre-existing statistical data using computing techniques. Quantitative research is concerned with collecting numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or explaining a phenomenon (Babbie, 2010) (Muijs, 2010)”
Quantitative research is widely used in research in the natural sciences although it is also currently starting to be used in social research. This is because its scientific nature and objectives are highly emphasized.
To understand the quantitative methods below are the main characteristic of quantitative methods (Babbie, 2010) (Creswell, 2014) :
1.
The data is usually gathered using
structured research instruments.
2.
The results are based on larger sample
sizes that are representative of the population.
3.
The research study can usually be
replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
4.
Researcher has a clearly defined research
question to which objective answers are sought.
5.
All aspects of the study are carefully
designed before data is collected.
6.
Data are in the form of numbers and
statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual
forms.
7.
Project can be used to generalize concepts
more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.
8. Researcher
uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical
data.
As for being able to distinguish it from qualitative research, the following below is the character of qualitative research compared to quantitative research:
Source: http://shayaaresearch.blogspot.com/2011/04/qualitative-vs-quantitative-research
Meanwhile, between quantitative and qualitative research is also explained by (Neuman, 2003) as follows:
|
Criteria
|
Quantitative Method
|
Qualitative Method
|
|
Research guide frame
|
Hypothesis,
tested
|
Find
the meanings
|
|
Concept
|
Found from
different variables
|
It is found in
themes, motifs, generalizations and taxonomy.
|
|
Measurement
|
Systematic; carried out before data collection;
standardized.
|
Done separately; individual according to the setting of
the researcher.
|
|
Data
|
In the form of
numbers; precision.
|
In the form of
text, images; derived from documents, observations and transcripts.
|
|
Theory
|
Very decisive; Deductive.
|
It can be decisive or not so decisive; often inductive.
|
|
Procedure
|
Standard
|
Special
|
|
|
Using statistics, tables, diagrams; related to
hypotheses.
|
It is done by extracting themes or generalizing from
the evidence of findings and organizing data to find data coherence and
consistency.
|
Source: Lawrence W. Neuman (2003) Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Fifth Edition. Boston: Pearson Education Inc, page. 145.
The difference between quantitative research and qualitative research can also be seen below, according to (Kuswandoro, 2015):
|
Criteria
|
Quantitative Method
|
Qualitative Method
|
|
Research objectives
|
Testing the theory
|
Building, critiquing
theories
|
|
Paradigm
|
Positivism
|
Non positivism:
post-positivism, critical.
|
|
Sensing of social
reality
|
Toughness, has a
natural diversity, can be observed, can be measured, can be conceptualized, perceived.
|
It has no weight,
mystery, it is not always apparent, it needs to be dug deeper.
|
|
Observation of Facts
|
Variable
|
Situation.
|
|
Representation of
facts
|
Numeric (numbers)
|
Non-numerical (text).
|
|
Mindset
|
Deductive
|
Inductive.
|
|
Research flow
|
Linier
|
non-linier.
|
|
Pattern (process) of
research
|
There is no novelty;
standard; Mechanical
|
There's always
something new; unique (different from each researcher).
|
|
The role of theory
|
Central, dominant,
tight
|
Not central, not
dominant but still necessary.
|
|
Theory functions
|
Frame the researcher
strictly.
|
Guiding the researcher
at the starting point, next the researcher understands social reality
naturally.
|
|
The nature of the
research results
|
Macros; explaining the
phenomenon that appears to be on the surface.
|
Profound, explaining
the phenomenon to "behind reality".
|
|
Point of view
|
Researcher’s point of view
|
Native’s point of view
|
|
The nature of the
method
|
Static, rigid
|
Dynamic, flexible.
|
|
Relation to Object /
Subject (O / S) Research
|
To put distance
|
Close, interactive.
|
|
O/S Research
|
Respondent
|
Informants,
interviewees
|
|
O/S Research Selection
|
Random (simple random sampling, stratified sampling, multi-stage random
sampling)
|
Selected, based on the
qualifications and proximity of the informant to the problem under
study; snow-ball.
|
|
Data collection
|
Direct or indirect
interview (post, internet)
|
Face-to-face in-person interviews, in-depth interviews.
|
|
Instruments
|
Questioner
|
Interview guide.
|
|
The nature of the
question
|
Structured
|
Semi-structured,
unstructured, open-ended questions.
|
|
The nature of the
analysis
|
Numerical,
mathematical, statistical
|
Reflective,
interpretive, praxis.
|
|
Analysis tools
|
Statistical
|
Analytical acumen and
researcher instincts.
|
|
Assistive software
|
SPSS, AMOS, etc.
|
CDC EZ Text, NVivo
|
|
Validity
|
Sample size, number of
respondents (reducing the margin of error).
|
The number of
informants is not important, the most important thing is the depth of the
data, the quality of the informants.
|
|
The nature of the
results
|
Value-free.
|
Not value-free; praxis.
|
|
Researcher's position
|
Beyond O/S research.
|
Joint O/S
research; bricoleur.
|
|
Debilitation
|
Failing to explain the
real phenomenon; the respondent can give an answer that is not true.
|
Vulnerable to bias of
researchers due to the researcher's proximity to the O/S of the study.
|
|
Research examples
|
Surveys, experiments,
correlations, descriptive, comparative, etc.
|
Ethnography, phenomenology, cultural studies, case studies, hermeneutics, Critical Discourse Analysis, etc.
|
Source: (Kuswandoro, 2015)
Chapter 3
Three Types of Basic Quantitative Methods
Quantitative research comes in a variety of forms. Understanding the many sorts of study is critical for a researcher. Choosing or settling on the suitable form of quantitative research design is critical for a researcher because it will affect several aspects in the research, including suitability with the research objective, and methodology (especially in the data collection phase).
We can find a wide variety of approaches in grouping types of quantitative research, from the simplest grouping (Exploratory and conclusive research), four types of quantitative design research (such as descriptive, correlational, causal-comparative, and experimental experimental research), to seven groups of quantitative.
In this paper I would like to explain the categorization into 3 types of quantitative research according to (Nurhajati, 2022) :
1. Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is conducted to learn more about a topic, issue, or problem in more depth. This research is usually done when the scope of the study is uncertain/unclear or overly wide or too broad. It is a good starting point to get familiarized with some insights and ideas (Nurhajati, 2022).
An exploratory research tries to look into a problem that hasn't been properly investigated or hasn't been studied before. The goal of this exploration study request is to gain a deeper knowledge of an existing problem; however, the outcomes are rarely conclusive.
Here is some example of title research (journal) in exploratory research:
1. How cartoon characters and claims influence children’s attitude towards a snack vegetable – An explorative cross-cultural comparison between Indonesia and Denmark (Valerie Hémar-Nicolas, 2021).
2. The Fight Against Hoax: An Explorative Study towards AntiHoax Movements in Indonesia (Nurlatifah, 2019)
3. How nurse express their caring behavior to patients with special needs (Nurachmah, 2001)
Source: Google.com
Descriptive method research conveys facts by describing from what is seen, obtained, and perceived. In this descriptive method Researchers simply write down or report the results of their eye view reports in journalistic language, simply describing the subject of the object under study without engineering or something (Creswell J. , 2012).
Descriptive research is typically performed to explain an occurrence or an event that requires precise facts. When discussing the population of a country, for example, we will debate population data based on gender, population growth trends, population density, and so on.
In descriptive research, there are 5 types of descriptive research: case studies, case series studies, cross-sectional, longitudinal, retrospective (worldsustainable.org, 2020).
Here is some example of title research (journal) in descriptive research:
1. A Study of Landslide Areas Mitigation and Adaptation in Palupuah Subdistrict, Agam Regency, West Sumatra Province, Indonesia (Oktorie, 2017)
2. The development of corporate social responsibility in accounting research: evidence from Indonesia (Gunawan & Setin, 2018)
3. Evaluation of Online-Based Student Learning: Models During New Normal Pandemic Covid-19 in Indonesia (Siswati, Astiena, & Savitri, 2020)
Picture 3.2
Illustration
Source: Google.com
3. Causal Research
Causal research is a form of study that seeks to establish a causal link between variables. We need to figure out which variables are causal and which are causative in this investigation. The statistical procedure itself will reveal and uncover this causal relationship (Creswell J. , 2012).
Usually, we refer to causal variables as independent variables and effect variables as dependent variables (worldsustainable.org, 2020). In the causal research we can classify into: experimental research and quasi-experimental research.
Here is some example of title research (journal) in causal research:
1. Income Shocks and Suicides: Causal Evidence from Indonesia (Christian, Hensel, & Roth, 2018)
2. The Effect of The Effectiveness of Collecting Duties on The Acquisition of Land and Building Right (BPHTB) on The Original Income of The Region with The Number of Inhabitants as A Moderating Variable (Rizkina, 2019)
3. The Effect of Internal Audit Quality on Financial Accountability Quality at Local Government (Zeyn, 2018)
The differences between these three types of quantitative research can also be understood through the explanation by (Zikmund, Babin, Carr, & Griffin, 2012) below:
Figure 3.3
|
Variable
|
Exploratory
research
|
Descriptive
research
|
Causal
research
|
|
Amount of
uncertainty characterising decision situation
|
Highly ambiguous
|
Partially
defined
|
Clearly defined
|
|
Key research statement
|
Research question
|
Research question
|
Research hypotheses
|
|
When conducted?
|
Early stage of
decision making
|
Later stages of
decision making
|
Later stages of
decision making
|
|
Usual research approach
|
Unstructured
|
Structured
|
Highly structured
|
|
Variable
|
Exploratory research
|
Descriptive research
|
Causal research
|
|
Examples
|
‘Our sales are
declining for no apparent reason’
‘What kinds of
new products are fast-food consumers interested in?’
|
‘What kind of people
patronize our stores compared to our primary competitor?’
‘What product
features are the most important to our customers?’
|
‘Will consumers
buy more products in a blue package?’
‘Which of two
advertising campaigns will be more effective?’
|
Source: (Zikmund, Babin, Carr, & Griffin, 2012)
Chapter 4
Conclusion
Quantitative research has many types of research. It is important for a researcher to understand these types of research comprehensively so as to help researchers also in coming up with research ideas, research objectives as well as getting a complete picture of supporting research methods, especially in the data collection process (sampling methods used and others). A comprehensive understanding helps researchers design a study that has elements of research that support each other and are appropriate so as to help improve the quality of research.
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