The Shannon-Weaver Communication Model : The First Theories of Modern Communication

Chapter 1 

Introduction

The first theories of communication in modern communication established by Claude Shannon. This theory is based on mathematical theory of communication, the theories developed by the Chicago School. This paper will discuss how the mathematician Claude Shannon could established the first theories of modern communication, what the situation in the context of these theories came from and why this theory still works at this moment. 

Key Words : The Shannon-Weaver Communication Model, The Impact of Theory, Advantage of theory

Chapter 2

The Shannon-Weaver Communication Model

Communication science is very broad in scope.  This wide scope then tries to make mapping according to the issue and the objects in focus. Then came the division of the 7 main traditions in the science of communication developed by (Craig, 2007)  For the students who are studying the science of communication this division makes it very easy for to see the big picture of a communication science and helps the students/scholar in conducting studies related to communication science.

Communication Expert categorized communication science into social sciences and applied sciences. Communication science is cross-disciplinary because the material object of communication science has similarities with other sciences, humans.

If we talked about the history of communication science, the development of communication science began since the 5th century BC which was marked by the development of the term Rhetoric in Ancient Greece as a term for the science that studies the process of human statements.  Georgias was the first person to study and study the process of statements between humans. Other figures who also studied the science of human statements were Protagoras, Socrates, Plato, Demosthenes, and Aristotle. In addition to Greece, the science of human statements also developed in Rome known as Rhetorical.

Picture 2.1

Source: www.google.com (communication illustration)

Communication theory in the modern era began with the birth of the first theory of communication which was established by establish by Claude Shannon (an American mathematician) and Warren Weaver (an electrical engineer). The theory is The Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication.

The Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication is a mathematical theory of communication that argues that human communication can be broken down into 6 key concepts: sender, encoder, channel, noise, decoder, and receiver (Drew, 2021). This communication model is known as “the mother of all (communication) model" or the "Information theory", and in some communication science literature is referred to as "Shannon Theory" because she was the main person in developing the communication model. 

Shannon developed this theory to support his work as an engineer at The Bell Telephone Company to help engineers find the most efficient way of transmitting electrical signals from one place to another.  The main point of study is how to determine the way in which channels of communication are used very efficiently. According to them, the main channels in the communication in question are telephone cables and radio waves (Wikipedia, 2019). According to (Shannon, 1948), the fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing a message sent from one point, either exactly or approximately, to another point.

Picture 2.1

Source: (Shannon, 1948)

The Theory highlights the process of delivery of messages from communicator to communicant (which consist of 6 key element) including the factor that affect/impact to the quality of receiving information, the noise (Unplanned disruption that occurs in the communication process as a result of the message received by the communicant is different from the message conveyed by the communicator to the communicant). 

Below the description of each element according to (Shannon, 1948):

1. Information source: which produces a message or sequence of messages to be communicated to the receiving terminal.
2. A transmitter: which operates on the message in some way to produce a signal suitable for transmission over the channel
3. The channel: is merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver
4. The receiver ordinarily performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter, reconstructing the message from the signal.
5. The destination: is the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended.

“Shannon's Theory of Communication Mathematics also argues that information can be calculated in number, and that information is sourced or originated from an event. The amount of information that can be attributed to, or generated by, a state or event is the degree of reduction (reduction) of uncertainty, or choice of possibility, that may arise from that state or event. In simpler words, this theory assumes that we obtain information if we get certainty about a particular event or thing (Wikipedia, 2019)”

Chapter 3

The Impact of theory

Shannon-Weaver Communication models enrich theories in communication science so that human civilization can improve the quality of communication and also provide a foundation on the development of theories or sciences in the communication science be it basic science or applied science.

Identify problems in communication

Shannon-weaver's theory reveals to the surface some of the problems that arise in communication:

1.Technical Problem: how the channel used in the communication process causes the problem

Picture 3.1

Source: www.google.com

2.Semantic Problem: Errors in understanding messages due to inaccuracies in understanding symbols (signs) in communication. So, the message is interpreted differently.  

Picture 3.2

Source: www.google.com

3.Effectiveness Problem: How effectively does the message cause reaction. 

Picture 3.3

Source: https://theinvestorsbook.com/effective-communication.html

Advantages of Shannon Weaver Model

 The model unveils important element that can disrupt the quality of communication. the Concept of noise. We can improve the quality of communication (in any context, objective etc) by removing the noise or problem causing noise. There two sources of noise:

- internal noise: it happens when a sender makes a mistake encoding a message or a receiver makes a mistake decoding the message. (for example, when we misunderstand a message read when receiving an email)

-  external noise:  It happens when something external (not in the control of sender or receiver) impedes the message. (for example, when we talk in a rowdy public place so that our hearing is disturbed)

 The model explain that the communication is a two-way process. (its applicable in our daily communication practices). This confirms that an effective communication process involves two parties reciprocally.

 Communication is taken as quantifiable in Shannon Weaver model.

The term Shannon–Weaver model was widely adopted in social science fields such as education, communication sciences, organizational analysis, psychology (Wikipedia, 2019)

Chapter 4

Conclusion

Shannon-weaver communication model as the initial theory of communication contributes to the development of communication science and encourages the emergence of other communication studies. His theory that seeks to explain simply a communication process helps the development of other sciences involving elements of communication. As well as teaching science / pedagogy, communication psychology etc.

This fairly old communication model is partly still relevant in the context of communication, some are also considered irrelevant and are considered to oversimplify the problem. No theory is truly perfect in and contemplates all reality.  Some critics:

“The model isn't really a model of communication, however. It is, instead, a model of the flow of information through a medium, and an incomplete and biased model [to technical media]. The model suggests that communication within a medium is frequently direct and unidirectional, but in the real world of media, communication is almost never unidirectional and is often indirect (Foulger, 2004)”

(Al-Fedhagi, 2012) quoted Kaminski (2012) enumerates various weaknesses in the model: Not analogous to much of human communication, only formal, does not account for content, Static and linear.

Some other critics also revealed that Shannon and Weaver's communication model can only be applied well to interpersonal communication, rather than mass communication or group communication, the model is its linear shape; communication is described as a one-way event; There is no feedback.

References

Al-Fedhagi, S. (2012). A Conceptual Foundation for The Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication. International Journal of Soft Computing .

Craig, R. (2007). Theorizing Communication : Reading across traditions. Sage.

Drew, C. (2021, October 24). Helpful Professor Website. Retrieved from helpfulprofessor.com: https://helpfulprofessor.com/shannon-weaver-model/

Foulger, D. (2004). Models of The Communication Process. Oswego State University.

Shannon, C. (1948). A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The Bell System Technical Journal vol.27, 623–656,.

Wikipedia. (2019, June 23). Wikipedia website. Retrieved from wikipedia.org: https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_matematikal_komunikasi

 

Interest, Idea and Theories in The Research Process

Chapter 1

Introduction

In the research process schema’s, we can see the complexity of the research process. In this session we will explain why the three dimensions of interest, idea and theories are the most important thing in the research process?

Key words : Research process, Interest, Idea, Theory, The Role of theory, Hypothesis

Chapter 2

Research Process

Research is an attempt to find the truth through a measurable, systematic and logical stage. From a research we produced science that is useful for the benefit of human civilization and encourages the birth of other studies. Research also as the tools to validate a reality that wants to be tested for truth.

Research is a process that people undertake in a systematic way in order to find out things, thereby increasing their knowledge (Saunders 2016). Research is a scientific and rational activity that must be passed through a systematic and logical process.

A research process starts from a problem statement and the definition of the problem that will be the reason for a research is done is to be able to answer questions that have been defined. From that stage then proceed to the process of building hypotheses and theoretical foundations, determining research methods (including data sources), data collection, data interpretation, data analysis and then presentation of research results. This simple model of research is described in the chart below:

Picture 2.1

Source: (Nurhajati, 2022)

In the early stages of the research model as described in a simple model of research above, there are three dimensions that will influence a researcher in determining or choice the problems and defining research problems and Theory-Hypothesis construction.

Picture 2.2

Source: (Nurhajati, 2022)

The Three important dimension are:

1. Interest can be defined as a feeling that accompanies or causes special attention to something or someone (Merriam-Webster, 2021). Interest can be defined as a form of awareness of an individual's attraction or a certain excitement in the individual to an object that encourages an individual to perform something related to that object. An interest is a form of awareness of attraction to something that allows it to be a motive in an action attached to the object of interest. In the general dictionary Indonesian interest is interpreted as the favored attention (tendency of the heart) to a desire (Poerdarminto, 2010). Meanwhile according to the Great Dictionary of Indonesian, interest is the tendency of a high heart towards a passion, a desire that is more than a thing (Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, 2008).
2. Idea can be defined as a formulated thought or opinion, an entity (such as thought, concept, sensation, or image) actually or potentially present to consciousness (Merriam-Webster, 2021). According to the Great Dictionary of Indonesian (KBBI), the meaning of the word idea is a feeling that completely envelops the mind. Another meaning of an idea is the design arranged in the mind. We can define Idea as the research hypothesis.
3. Theory can be interpreted as a series of assumptions, concepts, constructs, definitions, and proposition to explain a phenomenon systematically by formulating relationships between concepts (Mudjia, 2018). Other definition about theory is summarized by (Abend, 2008) as follow:

• A theory is a logically connected set of general propositions that establishes a connection between two or more variables.
• A theory is an explanation of a specific social phenomenon that identifies a set of causality relevant factors or conditions
• A theory provides insights into the real meaning of social phenomenon by offering an illuminating interpretation and by telling us “what it is all about”
• A theory is an entire worldview, or a way of seeing, interpreting, and understanding events in the world.

Picture 2.3

Source: www.pedia.com

The 3 dimensions mentioned above are the factors that determine the birth of a research. Referring to the three-dimensional definition above:

First, a researcher's interest in something can be a researcher's motive to determine the object of the study. A research object can result from a researcher's condition of interest in the object to be studied. 

For example, a researcher who has an interest in the field of education can give birth to research on education. This can happen because of the source of interest and also the presence of the realities of education which ultimately fosters questions that need to be answered with a study. 

Picture 2.2

Illustration of Education

Source: www.google.com

Second, The Idea. Research ideas are the initial capital in making research proposals. Idea as a formulated thought or opinion, is a research hypothesis in the form of a relationship between propositions that will be tested relationships or attachments. The hypothesis itself has the meaning of a temporary statement or the researcher's presumption of a research problem. (This hypothesis can be true can be wrong, so it must be tested in research). 

For Example: Researcher identify the research object in the education issue related to ethical subjects taught in schools. Researchers hypothesize that ethical lessons positively affect students' learning behavior in school.

Third, theory. The researcher's understanding of a theory helps the researcher in the initial process of research in this case helps to abstract a reality. This theory helps the researcher see and interpret a reality which then forms a hypothesis to be tested. A researcher's ability to understand and master relevant theories in research will assist the researcher in finding the proposing-proposing relationships to be tested. Or it can also be a retesting of a theory. 

For Example: The formation of the above hypothesis will be helped if the researcher has knowledge in the form of theories that can explain and become the basis of hypothesis testing. Social behavior theories, ethical theory, teaching theory and others.

In the research context According to (Sahay & Walsham, 1995), theory has minimum 4 roles:

• First, theory can be used as a means of communication between researchers and practitioners. 
• Second, Theory can also be used as a means of communication between researchers. Theory can have the vocabulary of the city chosen to describe and understand a phenomenon. This vocabulary will be very helpful in communication, both between researchers and practitioners and between researchers.
• Third, theory is useful as a means of accumulating knowledge. Not infrequently when the research is completed, then the 'deadly' question asked is: 'so what? '- have you been snoring? There are at least two areas of contribution attached to research: theoretical and practical contributions. Well, this theoretical contribution is what makes science develop because of the accumulation of many studies that support, complement each other, or even contradict each other.
• Fourth, theory is also a means to gain legitimacy and attention from other disciplines. Science does not develop linearly, but there can be many new disciplines appear along the way. Information systems, for example, is a new discipline that initially occupies the last position in the academic 'food chain'. This discipline initially borrowed more theory from various disciplines, ranging from engineering, organizational studies, sociology, political science, to mathematics. But recent developments show that this discipline has also built reciprocal relationships with many other disciplines. Research in the discipline began to be noticed and cited by other disciplines. It's just an illustration. In the future, it could be that the discipline is also 'lambing' to be more specific, such as the birth of the field of geographical information systems studies, medical informatics, eGovernment, information and communication technology for development (ICT4D).

Chapter 3

Conclusion

Interest, Idea and Theory help researchers in the early stages of research. From starting to determine the object of research, and assisting researchers in finding problems and defining problems. 

References

Abend, G. (2008). The meaning of theory. Sociological Theory volume 26 issue 2, 173-199.

Merriam-Webster. (2021, November 12). Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved from www.merriam-webster.com: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gadge

Mudjia, R. (2018). Antara Konsep, Proposisi,Teori,Variabel, dan Hipotesis dalam Penelitian. Metodologi Penelitian. Malang: Sekolah Pascasarjana Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim Malang.

Nurhajati, L. (2022). Methodogy of Communication Research. Jakarta: LSPR Communication & Business Institute.

Poerdarminto, W. (2010). Kamus Umum Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.

Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, T. P. (2008). Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.

Sahay, S., & Walsham, G. (1995). Information Technology in Developing Countries: A Need for Theory Building. Information Technology for Development 6(3/4), 111-124.

 

 

 

Paradigms in social science

Chapter 1 

Introduction

Paradigms in social science provide a viewpoint or set of assumptions that frame the research process. But as definitions of the paradigm become not rigid anymore. This paper will explain how many paradigms (in one approach from many approach or perspective) in social science and which paradigm is the best to use in the Communication field.

key words : Paradigm, Positivism Paradigm, Interpretive Paradigm, Critical Paradigm, Epistemology, Axiology, Ontology, Methodology,

Chapter 2

Paradigm

We find many definitions of what a paradigm is that we generally understand as a theoretical framework or theoretical perspective that we use in research, especially in social sciences research. Originated from Greek language, “paradigm” was first used to mean a philosophical way of thinking (Kuhn, 1962).

• The term 'paradigm' is defined as a loose collection of logically related assumptions, concepts, or propositions that orient thinking and research (Bogdan & Biklin, 1998) or the philosophical intent or motivation for undertaking a study (Cohen & Manion, 1994). 
• Paradigm also defined as the combination of three element such as belief about the nature of knowledge, a methodology, and criteria for validity (Mac Naughton, Rolfe, & Siraj-Blatchford, 2001). 
• Paradigm especially in scientific research as the term is used to describe a researcher’s worldview, perspective, thinking or set of shared beliefs that inform the meaning or interpretation of research data (Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006) 
• In social Science, in which the combination of quantitative methods (such as surveys and questionnaires ) and qualitative methods (such as interview and ethnographical studies) is commonly employed, a paradigm is viewed as both “worldviews”, reflecting researchers ‘assumptions about reality, methodology, and epistemology (Guba & Lincoln, 2005)
• Paradigm is a general organizing framework for theory and research that includes basic assumptions, key issues, models of quality research, and methods for seeking answers (Neuman, 2014)

Paradigm as the theoretical frame work that underlies a research, comprises for elements covering its basic assumptions, belief, norms and values, namely ontology, epistemology, axiology and methodology. This is as described by (O'Brien, 2019) by the picture below:

Picture 2.1

Source:  (O'Brien, 2019)

To understand the paradigm then we need to understand the four elements that make it up. For each element in paradigm below is the definition: 

1. Ontology, an area of philosophy that deals with the nature of being, or what exists; the area of philosophy that asks what really is and what the fundamental categories of reality are (Neuman, 2014).  Ontology is about nature of reality (what researcher belief about the nature of reality) and human nature etc. 
2. Epistemology, an area of philosophy concerned with the creation of knowledge; focuses on how we know what we know or what are the most valid ways to reach truth (Neuman, 2014). Epistemology is about how is knowledge is gained and how does the knowledge “accumulate”
3. Methodology, is an articulated, theoretically informed approach to the production of data (Ellen, 1984). (Hidayat, 2002) quoted the opinion from (Bailey,1987) that Methodology is the philosophy of the research process, it includes the assumptions and values that serve as a rationale for research and standards or criteria that researcher use for interpreting data and reaching conclusions.
4. Axiology, related to the position of value judgment, ethics, and moral choices of researchers in a study (Hidayat, 2002).

Meanwhile, according to (Guba E. , 1990) the dimensions of the paradigm consist 3 elements as follows:

Figure 2.2 

Ontology	Epistemology	Methodology
Assumption about reality	Assumption related to the relation between researcher and research object	Methodological assumptions about how researchers acquire knowledge
What is the nature of “reality”	What is the nature of the relationship between the inquirer and the knowable?	How should the inquirer go about finding out knowledge?

Source: (Guba E. , 1990)

Paradigm differences can be seen from the differences in these elements and specifically have implications for significant differences in methodology. 

Chapter. 3

Paradigm in Social Science (and communication field)

Paradigms as theoretical perspectives are categorized by expert in many very diverse groups. Some of them are as follows:

• (Crotty, 1998) grouped the paradigms including Positivism, interpretivism, critical inquiry, feminism, and postmodernism. 
• Burrel dan Morgan (1979), divided it into Radical Humanist Paradigm, Radical Structuralist Paradigm, Interpretive Paradigm, and Functionalist Paradigm.
• (Guba & Lincoln, 2005) proposed a typology that consists of 4 (four) paradigms: Positivism, Post-positivism, Critical Theories, and Constructivism.

In some literature experts categorize Positivism and Post-positivism as Classic Paradigm because at the practical level the methodological implications are not much different (Hidayat, 2002). Constructivism is also referred to as Constructivism-Interpretive Paradigm or Interpretive Paradigm. The three paradigms (positivist-constructivist-critical) which differs in ontological, epistemological, and methodological aspects, in the classification of this study is also commonly included in the paradigm classification of the most researchers (Fazlıoğulları, 2012). The figure below displays a summary of explanations that represent these three paradigms from (Nurhajati, 2022) as follows below:

Figure 3.1 

Positivism Paradigm	Interpretive Paradigm	Critical Paradigm
-Based on the belief of an objective reality -Studies variables -Seeks to explain causal relationships between variables. -Seeks to generate laws that generalize communication behavior -Uses quantitative data	-Humans are capable of reflectivity and their action is purposive -Studies meaning through semantic relationships -Studies meaning through rules -Constructs theories of understanding (Local knowledge Theories and Heuristic frameworks) -Uses qualitative data	-Reflection produces knowledge -Critical reflection enables the exposure of ideologies and power imbalances -Research should enable social change -Social science is subject to critical reflection

Source: (Nurhajati, 2022)

The three paradigms (Positivism, Interpretive/ constructivism, and Critical) are also explained by (Guba & Lincoln, 2005) by looking at it from the side of 3 elements that become the foundation and differentiator for each paradigm as follows:

Figure 3.2

Source: (Guba & Lincoln, 2005)

How the social sciences are then placed/defined according to the three paradigms can be explained in the figure below which is abstracted from various sources:

Figure 3.3 

Classic Paradigm	Constructive Paradigm	Critical Paradigm
Placing social science similar to natural science &Physic and as an organized method for finding deductive logic with empirical observations, to probabilistically discover or confirm causal law that can be used to predict the general patterns of certain social phenomena	View social science as a systematic analysis of socially meaningful action through direct observation and detail of social actors in natural daily settings in order to be able to understand and interpret how social actors concerned create and manage their social world. (their social)	Define social science as a process that critically seeks to "reveal the real structure" behind the illusion, false needs, represented in the material world, with the aim of helping enlighten a human being to improve and change his or her life.

Source:  (Hidayat, 2002)

How the science of communication as part of social science is defined and placed in these three paradigms is thus the same as how these three paradigms view the social sciences. Paradigm differences in research in communication field then have an impact on how their theoretical perspectives in their research which will be described on the elements such as ontology, axiology, epistemology and research methodologies.  Any paradigm — as a mental window or worldview used by a particular community of scientists to study their scientific objects — may be contradictory and difficult to reconcile. Even some social science experts refuse to adopt the positivist paradigm in social science research. Some social science experts do criticize a lot of paradigm positivism (which is considered unsuitable for use in social sciences research) because some things such as the mismatch of views in placing a reality. In a positivist perspective, reality is viewed objectively, human being is governed by fixed law and that fact should be separate from value. (Sarantakos, 1995) for the example, argues that the positivist paradigm is not suitable for studying social reality because social reality is often biased, unsystematic and logically sometimes inconsistent. 

From my perspective according to the explanation above about the characteristic and the nature of each paradigm, each paradigm has assumptions and explanations about its own social reality, which is difficult to compare one by one (incommensurable). This is in line with (Lindlof, 1995)’s thinking that argues, "paradigms are incommensurable. That is the assumptions and explanations of two or more paradigms within a given discipline are so different that they cannot be compared by means of an independent value system. Thus, adherence to one paradigm forecloses the possibility of the acceptance of a competing one " 

Chapter 4

Conclusion

The question of ‘which paradigm is the best? Especially in communication field (or in social Science)’ is not a meaningful question since there is not any answer of it. Yes, some experts partly criticize paradigm positivism in its application to the social sciences but Every paradigm has a coherency and consistency in itself. For this reason, it is all in vain to compare the paradigms according to a criterion. These ideas require normally that multiple paradigm approach is recognized. Some research in the communication field in reality use many diverse paradigms tailored to the object of research, the purpose of the research, and the values that researchers adopt in relation to the object of research. The most important thing in research (also in social research or in communication field) is that the use of paradigms must be coherent and consistent which is reflected in its elements (ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodology)

References

Bogdan, R., & Biklin, S. (1998). Qualitative Research for Education : An Introduction to Theory and Methods (3rd ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Cohen, l., & Manion, L. (1994). Research Methods in Education (4th ed). London: Routledge.

Crotty, M. (1998). The Foundation of Social research : Meaning and Perspective in the research process. Sage Publications Ltd.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (2000). Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage.

Ellen, R. (1984). Ethnographic Research: A Guide to General Conduct. New York: Academic Press.

Fazlıoğulları, O. (2012). Scientific Research Paradigms in Social Sciences. International Journal of Educational Policies, 6 (1). , 41-55.

Guba, E. (1990). The Alternative Paradigm Dialogue. In Guba,E.(Ed). The Paradigm Dialogue. London: Sage.

Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (2005). Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions & Emerging Confluences. In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd Edition). California: Sage.

Hidayat, D. N. (2002). Metodologi Penelitian dalam sebuah "Multi-Paradigm Science". Mediator Jurnal Komunikasi.

Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1st Edition). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lindlof, T. (1995). Qualitative Communication Research methods. New Delhi: Sage Publication.

Mac Naughton, G., Rolfe, S., & Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2001). Doing Early Childhood Research:International Perspectives on Theory and Practice. Australia: Allen & Unwin.

Mackenzie, N., & Knipe, S. (2006). Research Dilemmas:Paradigms,Methods and Methodology. Issues in Educational Research 16, 1-15.

Neuman, W. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (Seventh Edition). Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limited.

Nguyen, T. T. (2019). Selection of Research Paradigms in English Language Teaching: Personal Reflections and Future Directions. The Second Annual International Conference on Language and Literature KnE Social Sciences, 1-19.

Nurhajati, L. (2022). Methodology of Communication Research. Jakarta: LSPR Communication and Business Institute.

O'Brien, R. (2019). My Turakawaewae: A Review of Learning. research gate, 15.

Sarantakos, S. (1995). Social Research. Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.

 

Qualitative Research : In-Dept Interviews, Focus Group Discussion and Observation Approach Method

 Chapter 1

Introduction

Qualitative research is a method in focus, involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. In this paper we will explain the similarities and the differences of In-Depth Interviews, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), and Observation approach method.

Key words: Qualitative Research, Quantitative Research, In-Dept Interviews, Focus Group Discussion, Observation

Chapter 2

Qualitative Research versus Quantitative

We know two research methods that can be used in research specifically in researches in the social sciences, namely quantitative research methods and qualitative research methods. These two research methods have some differences, (Basri, 2014) quoted Tailor in the journal to explain several things that distinguish the two as follows:

 

Figure 2.1

No	Quantitative	Qualitative
01	Adequate sample, based on the theory of "central limit theorem" (data is considered normal).	The sample is small, not representative of the population and idiosyncratic, i.e. unique and individual.
02	Literature review at the beginning of the study	Literature review at the end of the study
03	Data is collected through instruments based on predetermined variables.	Emphasizes organizing, coordinating, and synthesizing large amounts of data.
04	Objective control over replication and reliable biases.	It is subjective on individual data and value content.
05	Deductive	Inductive
06	Testing the theory	Developing a theory
07	Draw conclusions based on data output orientation	Develop value and data-driven conclusions, process-oriented
08	Explanation obtained from the interpretation of numerical data	Complex and rich experience (contained), regardless of numerical data
09	Reliability and validity are known	Reliability and validity are unknown
10	Standard measurement devices	Non-standard measurement devices
11	Intervention, no participant involvement	Participant engagement
12	Follow the scientific method by using HO+ HA to accept, reject, prove, or not accept hypotheses.	Do not follow the steps of the scientific method, looking for meaning and substance.
13	Numeric data	Narrative data – words to describe complexity
14	Using a wide variety of instrument variations	In principle, using observation and interview
15	Assuming a stable (static) reality	Assuming dynamic reality
16	Verification-oriented	Discovery-oriented
17	Analyzing social reality through variables	Carry out holistic observations of total context in social events
18	Using statistical methods to analyze data	Use induction analysis to analyze data
19	Study the population or sample that represents the population	Case studies

While from several other sources the author gets the difference between the two as follows:

Figure 2.2

Source: Qualitative vs Quantitative Data: Analysis, Definitions, Examples (intellspot.com)

The determination of the research method used in a research basically depends on the paradigm underlying the study. (Positivist, Interpretive, Classical). But some of the explanations above can help more detail how the nature of our research, objective (what is the research question) etc., related to what research methods are used.

Chapter 3

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and their thoughts) in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (Nurhajati, 2022)

Specifically, for qualitative research, there are some characteristic to do qualitative research. (Creswell, 2007) mentioned several characteristics of good qualitative research, including:

a. Researchers use the procedure of obtaining the right data.

b. Researchers limit research within the assumptions and characteristics of qualitative approaches.

c. Researchers use qualitative approaches in their research.

d. Researchers begin the study with one focus.

e. Research contains detailed methods, appropriate approaches in data collection, data analysis, and report writing.

f. Researchers analyze data using separation analysis in several levels.

g. Researchers write persuasively, so that readers can feel the same experience.

E. Research process with qualitative approach

Data collection in qualitative research can be done through observation, visual analysis, literature studies, and interviews (individual or group) (Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008). (Nurhajati, 2022) define in communication research subject, there are 3 types of qualitative research methods, namely deep interview, focus group discussion and observation.

Focus Group Discussion

Focus group discussion is a technique that researchers use to get needed information or that will support the purpose of research by collecting several individuals as a source of information in a group. Information or conclusions are obtained through a group discussion process led by a discussion leader (researcher) in the group by discussing a predetermined topic and within a mutually agreed time. Focus group discussion activities usually consist of 8-12 people who generally have similar backgrounds and experiences related to the research subject. In this discussion forum activity, each discussion participant can freely express opinions, ideas. Therefore, this forum is used by researchers to get views, perceptions, beliefs in something related to research that is delivered with an objective of each individual without restriction, without pressure and is an honest output of each person.

Picture 3.1

Source: www.google.com

In-Depth Interview 

It is the way to collect the information in qualitative research method by interviewing the individual personally (one by one) conducted by researchers in order to get information that supports the research. This interview process allows researchers to deeply explore information from individuals about a particular subject related to the research to get their perspective, experience, belief in something related to the research subject.

Picture 3.2

Source: www.google.com

The key characteristics of in-depth interviews are the following, According to (Guion, Diehl, & McDonald, 2011) :

 • Open-ended Questions. Questions need to be worded so that respondents expound on the topic, not just answer “yes” or “no.” Many open-ended questions begin with “why” or “how,” which gives respondents freedom to answer the questions using their own words.

• Semi-structured Format. Although it is important to pre-plan the key questions, the interview should also be conversational, with questions flowing from previous responses when possible. For example, if an interviewee remarks that “The elections are approaching,” an appropriate response would be, “How do you feel about the candidates involved?”

 • Seek Understanding and Interpretation. It is important to use active listening skills to reflect upon what the speaker is saying. The interviewer should try to interpret what is being said and should seek clarity and understanding throughout the interview. 

• Recording Responses. The responses are typically audio-recorded and complemented with written notes (i.e., field notes) by the interviewer. Written notes include observations of both verbal and non-verbal behaviors as they occur, and immediate personal reflections about the interview. In sum, in-depth interviews involve not only asking questions, but systematically recording and documenting the responses to probe for deeper meaning and understanding.

Focus Group Discussion vs In-Depth Interview

These two methods of data collection although both in the form of direct interaction between the researcher and the object of the study, both have some distinguishing characteristics as follows: 

Figure 3.3

Focus Group Discussion	In-Depth Interview
Real-world response Observe commonalities and differences between participants Fluid discovery Brainstorming Showing visuals (logos, etc.) Best when participants are in the same geographic location	Explore more sensitive topics Granular understanding of product being testing Reach a broader audience More detailed answers per question Great when participants are dispersed geographically

Source: https://interq-research.com/focus-groups-vs-in-depth-interviews/

Observation

A way to gather data by watching people, events, or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting. Observations can be overt (subjects know they are being observed) or covert (do not know they are being watched) (Duke University Library, 2022). As the name implies, data collection in this research process is carried out through observation activities on research objects by researchers. Because in the process the researcher as an observer must be among the objects observed then the researcher must be part of the object being examined, the researcher must build a relationship with the respondent. This way the researcher can make more in-depth observations. That is why research with observation is referred to as a participatory study. We can categorize observation activity into some type of observation based on perspective and research involvement as follow:

Picture 3.4

Source: www.Slideshare.com

Chapter 4

Conclusion

Qualitative research method is the most appropriate research method considered as a solution in answering the research question "Why?"  and for the research with the orientation of the research is to determine motivation, perception or belief.  Focus group discussion, in-dept interview and observation is the main method for this research to get the knowledge. These three methods have different ways of obtaining knowledge with different technicalities as described in chapter 4 but have similarities on the epistemological side for example, namely how researchers put themselves against the object of research. As the method is carried out in the qualitative research method of the researcher and the object of research there is no distance, there is a form of interaction, and there is a form of intervention.

References

Basri, H. (2014). Using Qualitative Research in Accounting and Management Studies: Not a New Agenda. Journal of US-China Public Administration. October Vol. 11, 831-838.

Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design Choosing Among Five Approaches. California: Sage Publication. 2nd Edition.

Duke University Library. (2022, April 18). Duke University Library. Retrieved from guides.library.duke.edu: https://guides.library.duke.edu/c.php?g=289813&p=1934020

Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., & Chadwick, B. (2008). Methods of Data Collection in Qualitative Research:Interviews and Focus Groups. British Dental Journal Volume 204 No.6, DOI:10.1038/bgj/2008.192.

Guion, L. A., Diehl, D. C., & McDonald, D. (2011). Conducting an In-Depth Interview. f the Department of Family, Youth and Community Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service.

Nurhajati, L. (2022). Methodlogy of Communication Research. Jakarta: LSPR.